Palmyrene Soldiers

The most successful general in the service of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra[1]; also called Saba or Zaba. Zabdas led the armies of Palmyrene expansion in 270-271, sweeping into Egypt and, with the aid of the pro-Palmyrene political faction, annexing the entire province in the name of his queen. Further advances were made throughout the entire East, including Syria and Asia Minor, until Emperor Aurelian took to the field in 271. Zabdas focused on Antioch as his strategic base and moved north to the banks of the Orontes where he had his first engagement with the Romans[2]. Zabdas probably had a numerical advantage, especially in cavalry units, his horsemen being strongly armoured on huge mounts, but this failed to serve him. Aurelian’s infantry allowed the cavalry to charge and then simply rolled up the Palmyrene flank. Defeated but not destroyed, Zabdas retreated to Antioch but had to leave there because of the inhabitants’ unrest. Aurelian entered the city and pushed on, following Zabdas’ circuitous route to Emesa[3]. Zabdas hoped for Persian aid, which did not materialize, and turned to give battle again. With some 70,000 men at his disposal and the cavalry still large and formidable, Zabdas repeated the tactics of his first encounter with Aurelian, with the same results. The Roman cavalry (mostly Moors and Dalmatians) was routed, but the legions weathered the charges and then advanced, demolishing the Palmyrene army. The survivors broke and fled to Emesa, while Zenobia retreated to her native city.

[1] The Palmyrene Empire (260-273) was a splinter empire that broke off the Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century. It encompassed the Roman provinces of Syria, Palestine, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor.

The Palmyrene Empire was ruled by Queen Zenobia for her infant son Vaballathus. The capital of the short-lived empire was the city of Palmyra.

By 258, the attacks on the Roman Empire were coming from within, when the Empire broke up in to three separate competing states. The Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain and Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire.

Since Rome was unable to protect the eastern provinces against the Sassanids, then-governor Septimius Odaenathus (also known as Odainath) decided to use the substantial legions he had at his disposal – among them the famed Legio XII Fulminata – to defend his provinces, rather than intervene in the struggles for Rome.

Septimius Odaenathus was assassinated and his son Vabalathus was made king (rex consul imperator dux Romanorum, “illustrious King of Kings” and corrector totius orientis) of the Palmyrene Empire.

The real power behind the throne was his mother Zenobia. With the legions at her disposal, and aided by the continuing struggle for Rome, Zenobia conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor and Lebanon. She even adopted the title of Augustus for her son and herself.

[2] The Battle of Immae was fought in 272 between the Roman army of Emperor Aurelian and the armies of Palmyrene Empire, whose leader, Queen Zenobia was perceived as a threat by Rome.

The Palmyrene heavy cavalry, the clibanarii, was superior to the Roman cavalry. Aurelian thus ordered to his infantry to move away, and to his cavalry to pretend to flee in front of the charge of the clibanarii. When the clibanarii, enclosed in their heavy metal armours, became exhausted in charging the faster Roman cavalry, the latter turned around and won the day.

After Aurelian won the battle, Zenobia and her general Zabdas entered in Antioch, bringing a man resembling Aurelian in chains. During the night, the Palmyrene fled the city, leaving a small unit on a close hill, which was later defeated by an Aurelian unit adopting the testudo formation.

[3] The Battle of Emesa was fought in 272 between Roman and Palmyran forces. The Romans were led by Emperor Aurelian, while the Palmyrans were led by Queen Zenobia and her general Zabdas.

Aurelian had started a campaign to reconquer the secessionist Palmyrene Empire, led by Vaballathus and his mother Queen Zenobia. He had come to the East willing to show his mercy to the Roman peoples of the area, and had defeated Zenobia at the battle of Immae, near Antioch. Zenobia and her general Zabdas fled to Emesa.

Roman and Palmyrene forces clashed in the plain in front of the city. As at Immae, the Palmyrene heavy cavalry (the clibanarii) was superior to the Roman equivalent. However, the clibanarii dispersed in the pursuit of the Roman cavalry, and were massacred by the Roman infantry. According to Zosimus, the Palestinian units, with their clubs, slaughtered the armoured Palmyrene horsemen.

Zenobia retreated into Emesa, but later escaped to Palmyra, having failed to recover the treasure from Emesa. While Aurelian attacked and conquered Palmyra, Zenobia flew to Persia, but was captured when she had reached the Euphrates. Aurelian showed her mercy, and Zenobia was not executed.