In twelfth century England, France and Germany, the profile of members of the caste of mounted warriors was clearly defined. The close connection between knights and their mounts is apparent in the words for them in various languages: from the French cheval (horse), we have chevalier, cavaliere (Italian), and caballero (Spanish); the German word for knight ritter (rider) was the basis for the Polish rycer. Only in English was the etymology different; knight comes from the Anglo-Saxon cniht, meaning household retainer or servant.

In the life of a knight, the horse occupied a position of great importance, and was, literally, his right-hand companion. Horses were led by knights or their squires on their right-hand sides, and this was the origin of the term destrier for war-horse.

The medieval knight occupied a precisely defined position in society; his relationship with his superiors and inferiors was codified. He was primarily a warrior, and his rank, authority and obligations derived from this fact. He owed certain duties and obligations to his feudal liege (although free from feudal taxes), and certain obligations and duties were due to him from his serfs. His position and wealth depended on the size of his fiefdom, but a significant source of his income was war booty.

In the beginning, knighthood could be conferred by another knight, but as the feudal system developed this turned into a privilege of the sovereign, and became linked with religious ritual. This hierarchy of authority was important to a ruler, because without his knights he was powerless to enforce his will.

The norms for behaviour among knights were set down in a code of chivalry, but this did not govern their behaviour towards other classes, except for biblical injunctions of mercy to the weak and charity to the poor.

Induction into the knighthood was a special ceremony. The ancestry and military prowess of the candidates were important, and it was rare indeed for an outstanding warrior not of noble birth to become a knight. The sons of knights and noblemen began serving as pages at court or with another knight at the age of seven. At 14 they became squires, and at 21 they were proposed for induction into the knighthood.

In western Europe, feudal organization gave rise to distinctions between the higher nobility (large landowners – counts, dukes, barons) and the lower nobility – knights or milites. Knights, better off than ordinary warriors, could afford heavy weaponry, equipment and horses, and pay the necessary servants, so they were more effective in combat. There were also closed organizations of knights’ religious orders. From the twelfth century, the feudal system weakened, and knights often entered the service of wealthy barons.

Until then, the armament of knights consisted of a long double-edged sword and a short lance, which could double as a missile if needed. A throwing battle-axe was in general use, though in Britain, France and some northern parts of Europe the two-handed Norman heavy axe was used. From the end of the twelfth century, lances became longer (5 m/16 ft), and were steel-tipped. The double-edged sword was unchanged, except for the hilt, which was lengthened to make possible a two-handed hold. Daggers, which could slip between armour scales, became more popular, as well as short-handled maces with spiked iron balls. The axe remained in use and the battle hammer was introduced. While the knight’s mounted retainers had a bow, javelin and, depending on resources, sword and lance, infantry were usually armed with bow or crossbow, and for hand-to-hand combat a lance, with or without shield, halberd and sword.

From the time of the Carolingians, protective equipment was developed steadily, and by the fifteenth century consisted of rigid plate armour with the necessary joints. Horses were armoured too: only the nose, ears and legs beneath the knees were free. On marches, the riders’ and horses’ heavy
equipment was transported in wagons or on beasts of burden. Every knight had two or three horses; a light one he rode during marches, and a heavier steed mounted before the battle.

Although knights were individual fighters, and rather unsuited for group action, they adopted some specific tactical forms for greater effectiveness. There were three basic formations – wedge (cuneus), line (en haye) and swarm (en fourragerus). The wedge was a deep formation with 5 men in the first line, 7 in the second, 9 in the third, and so on. It was suitable for attacks because it could be reinforced from the rear; in those days, there were no reserves. The drawback was that only a limited number of knights (those in the first lines) could shine, and it was precisely glory that drew them to combat. They therefore preferred to fight in line, where everybody could take part simultaneously. The swarm – a loose formation – was the favourite, however, as it allowed individuals most space to distinguish themselves. The knight’s tactics were simple: do or die; he could not leave a battlefield until only a single banner was flying. As his mobility was restricted, he had to be assisted by less encumbered soldiers, making up a supporting unit known as the lance.

Between the tenth and fourteenth centuries, the knights were unstoppable. Light cavalry and infantry could not stand up to them in frontal combat, and archers and crossbowmen could launch only a few arrows before being forced to flee, lest they be trampled under the chargers’ hooves. In the last clash between the early feudal Anglo-Saxon infantry and the new feudal Norman cavalry, at Hastings in 1066, the cavalry defeated the infantry mainly with close-combat weapons.