Valturius’ late fifteenth century treatise on war presents an idealized representation of the ox drawn wagon known as the carroccio. It was usually decorated with the city’s banners and carried priests praying for victory. The carroccio represented the communal identity of the Italian city-state at war, boosting morale and providing a rallying point in battle. A similar device was also used by Flemish city forces, and by English forces at the Battle of the Standard (1138). Note scythes on oxen harness.

The Carroccio of Legnano, a history painting by Amos Cassioli (1832–1891).

DBMM BAGGAGE Superior (S): Litter carrying a general or inspirational sacred object (such as an Inca general or the Ark of the Covenant) or a standard wagon, (such as the Khazar royal wagon, that of St. Peter and St. Cuthbert at Northallerton, or an Italian City State carroccio), each guarded by picked foot. The carroccio, a wagon bearing a large standard with its own guard, was the focus of civic patriotism and fiercely defended.

Frederick Barbarossa’s Italian Campaigns

After receiving German reinforcements in May 1160, Frederick moved to crush Milan. In June, he refused battle at San Romano, apparently deterred by the Milanese battle formation. This comprised 100 ‘scythed chariots’ in front, behind them the carroccio (an ox-drawn wagon carrying the City’s standards), surrounded by archers, then the cavalry, and finally the militias of the gates. Emboldened, in July, the Milanese advanced. When Frederick responded by moving to cut off their supplies, they attacked his camp (8 August 1160). Initially, this was successful, but a cavalry counter-attack led by the emperor seized the carroccio and drove them into retreat.

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When Frederick eventually returned to Italy in September 1174, he made this city his target, but withdrew to Pavia when relieving forces of the League arrived (13 April 1175). Negotiation failed, Henry the lion refused to help Frederick, and the emperor had to rely upon largely Italian forces recruited from enemies of the sixteen. The League raised 2,760 cavalry, an additional 900 from Milan alone, supported by urban militias, and challenged battle at Legnano on 29 May 1176. The League’s reconnaissance cavalry was routed and Frederick attacked the left wing, driving it back on the carroccio in the centre. But its defenders held, and Frederick, leading the attack, was unhorsed and believed dead, causing his troops to flee. Some 8,000 imperial troops and 2,000 Leaguers were believed dead. The emperor escaped on foot, only reaching safety at Como three days later.

The wealth that had drawn Frederick to Italy had proved his downfall. Isolated, the Italian cities were vulnerable, but in combination they possessed the fortresses and armies to defy an emperor. In the end, in the Peace of Constance of 11 83, Frederick accepted this.

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A Carroccio was a war chariot drawn by oxen, used by the medieval republics of Italy. It was a rectangular platform on which the standard of the city and an altar were erected; priests held services on the altar before the battle, and the trumpeters beside them encouraged the fighters to the fray.

In battle the Carroccio was surrounded by the bravest warriors in the army and it served both as a rallying-point and as the palladium of the city’s honour; its capture by the enemy was regarded as an irretrievable defeat and humiliation. It was first employed by the Milanese in 1038, and played a great part in the wars of the Lombard League against the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. It was afterwards adopted by other cities, and first appears on a Florentine battlefield in 1228.

The Florentine Carroccio was usually followed by a smaller cart bearing the Martinella, a bell to ring out military signals. When war was regarded as likely the Martinella was attached to the door of the Church of Santa Maria in the Mercato Nuovo in Florence and rung to warn both citizens and enemies. In times of peace the Carroccio was in the keeping of a great family which had distinguished itself by signal services to the republic.

The carro della guerra of Milan was described in detail in 1288 by Bonvesin de la Riva in his book on the “Marvels of Milan”. Wrapped in scarlet cloth and drawn by three yoke of oxen that were caparisoned in white with the red cross of Saint George, the city’s patron, it carried a crucifix so massive it took four men to step it in place, like a ship’s mast.

Accounts of the Carroccio will be found in most histories of the Italian republics; see, for instance, M. Villani’s Chronache, vi. 5 (Florence, 1825-1826); P. Villari, The Two First Centuries of Florentine History, vol. i. (Engl. transl., London, 1894); Gino Capponi, Storia della Repubblica di Firenze, vol. i. (Florence, 1875).

A full-length book treatment of the subject, with discussion of the symbolic significance of the war-cart for contemporaries and later ages, is given by E. Voltmer, Il Carroccio (translated by Giuseppe Albertoni: Turin 1994)